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Suggested Topics For Research Writing:
1) Semantic and communicative translation.
2) Literary and scientific translation.
3)Passivization in scientific language with reference to translation.
4)Translating Poetry .
5) Translating metaphors.
6) Tense in English and Arabic : a comparative study .
7) Collocating words with reference to translation .
8) The translation of legal language.
9) The translation of proverbs.
10) Headlines in English and Arabic papers.
11) Common errors in teaching or learning prepositions .
12) How to improve your spoken English.
13) Teaching punctuation.
14) To what extent the language labs have achieved their objectives As Media of instruction .
15) Difficulty in finding Arabic synonyms for English or Latin terms.
16)Arabic proverbs vs. English proverbs for.
17) a critique of common mistakes made by translators. (specific area).
18) How successful was translation in teaching medical courses at
faculty of medicine (Benghazi)
19) A comparison contrast between two literary works, two authors, two characters , or two settings.
20) English adjectives in – able and their rendering in modern standard Arabic .
21) Problems in the translation of English modals of necessity "must" and "have to " into Arabic. and English .
22) Rendering " maybe" and "might have been" into Arabic : a text – based analysis.
23) English syllables .
24) assimilation .
25)English stress and intonation .
26) Phonemes.
27) Teaching and learning prepositions.
28) Teaching vocabulary in context.
29) Teaching the speaking skill.
30) The old and the new in language teaching methodology .
31) The role of literature in teaching English.
32) Nature in Wordsworth’s poetry.
33) Loss and gain in coleridge’s “ the ancient mariner”.
34) Sensuousness in keat’s poetry : A study in his Odes.
35) Ambiguity and translation
Students can choose, at least, two types of ambiguity when translating from Arabic and English and vice versa.
a) Lexical ambiguity.
b) Grammatical ambiguity.
c) Referential ambiguity.
d) Pragmatic ambiguity.
e) Cultural ambiguity.
36) Some problems of translating passive voice form English into Arabic.
37) Translation of metaphor : with reference to Arabic – English.
38) Some problems of translating neologisms (technical terms) from English into Arabic.
39) Students may write about Arabic – English language and culture. for instance:
a) Linguistic aspects .
b) Cultural aspects.
40) Standards of textuality and translation of literary texts.
41) Students may write about the following topics:
a) Tense/ aspect error.
b) Semantic error.
c) Preposition and article error.
d) Stylistic error.
e) Collocation error.
f) Modality error.
42) Some problems in translating the proper names from English into Arabic.
43) A contrastive study of the processes of word formation adopted by English and Arabic.
44) The sequencing of adjectives in English and Arabic. A contrastive study.
45) Tenses.
46) English definite and indefinite articles. Vs Arabic articles.
47) Adjectives and adverbs.
48) Problems of Translation.
49) Linguistic problems in literary appreciation
50) A contrastive study of English and Arabic proverbs.
51) Meaning and form in poetry.
52) Communicative competence vs. linguistic competence.
53) attitudes and motivation in language learning.
54) transitive and intransitive verbs in English and Arabic.
55) Similarities and differences between certain modals
56) Writing problems among Libyan students.
57) Culture in language learning.
58) Equivalence in translation.
59) Women writers in the 20th century.
60) Teaching the reading skill.
Best of Luck
Dr. Muftah Lataiwish
Using Modern Language Association (MLA) Format
MLA style also specifies guidelines for formatting manuscripts and using the English language in writing and also provides a writers with a system for cross-referencing their sources--from their parenthetical references to their works cited page. This cross-referencing system allows readers to locate the publication information of source material. This is of great value for researchers who may want to locate your sources for their own research projects. The proper use of MLA style also shows the credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material. Most importantly, the use of MLA style can protect writers from accusations of plagiarism--the purposeful or accidental use of source material by other writers without giving appropriate credit.
All guidelines for MLA style are in the MLA Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (2nd edition). If you are asked to use MLA format for a research paper, the book to consult is MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (6th edition). Copies of these books are on the reference shelves in the Writing Lab (226 Heavilon Hall) and in the HSSE Library; it is also widely available in bookstores, libraries, and at the MLA web site. Our additional resources section also has links to other helpful books and resources on using MLA style. Included here is a brief summary of MLA style for the research paper.
• Basic Paper Format
• Making Reference to the Works of Others in Your Text
• Your Works Cited List (and Examples)
o Basic Forms For Sources In Print
o Basic Forms For Electronic Sources
o Other Types of Sources
• A Note on Notes
• Additional Resources
Basic Paper Format
The preparation of manuscripts in MLA style is covered in chapter four of the MLA Style Manual, as well as in chapter three of the Handbook for Writing Research Papers. Here are some basic guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style.
General Guidelines
• Type your paper or write it on a computer and print it out on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches).
• Double-space your paper.
• Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides.
• Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin. (Note: Your instructor or whoever is reading the manuscript may ask that you omit the number on your first page. Always follow their guidelines.)
• Use either underlining or italics throughout your essay for highlighting the titles of longer works and providing emphasis.
• If you have any notes, include them on a page before your works cited page and format them the same way as your works cited list.
Formatting the first page of your paper
• Do not make a title page for your paper unless specifically requested.
• Provide a double-spaced entry in the top left corner of the first page that lists your name, your instructor's name, the course, and the date.
• Create a header that numbers all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin. (Note: Your instructor or whoever is reading the manuscript may ask that you omit the number on your first page. Always follow their guidelines.)
• Center your title on the line below the header with your name, and begin your paper immediately below the title.
Here is a sample first page of an essay in MLA style:
Purdue 1
Pete Purdue
Dr. B. Boilermaker
English 101
12 November 2000
Building a Dream: Reasons to Expand Ross-Aide Stadium
During the 2000 football season, the Purdue Boilermakers won the Big Ten Conference Title, earned their first trip to the Rose Bowl in thirty-four years, and played consistently to sold-out crowds. Looking ahead...
Formatting your works cited list
• Begin your works cited list on a separate page from the text of the essay.
• Label the works cited list Works Cited (do not underline the words Works Cited nor put them in quotation marks) and center the words Works Cited at the top of the page.
• Double space all entries and do not skip spaces between entries.
Making reference to works of others in your text
Referring to the works of others in your text by using MLA style is covered in chapter seven of the MLA Style Manual, and chapter five of the Handbook for Writing Research Papers. Both chapters include extensive examples, so it's a good idea to read them over if you want to become familiar with the guidelines or if you have a particular question.
In MLA style, referring to the works of others in your text is done in two ways. When you make reference to someone else's idea, either through paraphrasing or quoting them directly, you:
• provide the author's name (or the title of the work) and the page (or paragraph) number of the work in a parenthetical citation
• provide full citation information for the work in your Works Cited list
This allows people to know which sources you used in writing your essay and then be able to look them up themselves, so that they can use them in their scholarly work. Here are some basic guidelines for referring to the works of others in your text.
Parenthetical Citations
MLA format follows the author-page method of citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear in your works cited list (see Your Works Cited Page, below). The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence.
For example:
Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263).
Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263).
Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process (263).
If the work you are making reference to has no author, use an abbreviated version of the work's title. For non-print sources, such as films, TV series, pictures, or other media, or electronic sources, include the name that begins the entry in the Works Cited page.
For example:
An anonymous Wordsworth critic once argued that his poems were too emotional ("Wordsworth Is A Loser" 100).
Sometimes you may have to use an indirect quotation. An indirect quotation is a quotation that you found in another source that was quoting from the original. For such indirect quotations, use "qtd. in" to indicate the source. For example:
Ravitch argues that high schools are pressured to act as "social service centers, and they don't do that well" (qtd.in Weisman 259).
Sometimes more information is necessary to identify the source from which a quotation is taken. For instance, if two or more authors have the same last name, provide both authors' first initials (or even her or his full name if different authors share initials) in your citation. If you cite more than one work by a particular author, include a shortened title for the particular work from which you are quoting to distinguish it from the other works by that same person.
For example:
Two authors with the same last name:
Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).
Two works by the same author:
Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children ("Too Soon" 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development in a child's second and third year ("Hand-Eye Development" 17).
Quotations
When you directly quote the works of others in your paper, you will format quotations differently depending on whether they are long or short quotations. Formatting quotations using MLA style is covered in section 3.9 of the MLA Style Manual (which begins on page 102), and section 2.7 of the of the Handbook for Writing Research Papers (which begins on page 80). Here are some basic guidelines for incorporating quotations into your paper.
Short Quotations
To indicate short quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of verse) in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation marks and incorporate it into your text. Provide the author and specific page citation (in the case of verse, provide line numbers) in the text, and include a complete reference in the works-cited list. Punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the parenthetical citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation marks if they are a part of the quoted passage but after the parenthetical citation if they are a part of your text.
For example:
According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184), though others disagree.
According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184).
Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)?
Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there/ That's all I remember" (11-12).
Long Quotations
Place quotations longer than four typed lines in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented one inch from the left margin, and maintain double-spacing. Your parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. When quoting verse, maintain original line breaks. (You should maintain double-spacing throughout your essay.)
For example:
Nelly Dean treats Heathcliff poorly and dehumanizes him throughout her narration:
They entirely refused to have it in bed with them, or even in their room, and I had no more sense, so, I put it on the landing of the stairs, hoping it would be gone on the morrow. By chance, or else attracted by hearing his voice, it crept to Mr. Earnshaw's door, and there he found it on quitting his chamber. Inquiries were made as to how it got there; I was obliged to confess, and in recompense for my cowardice and inhumanity was sent out of the house. (Brontë 78)
In her poem "Sources," Adrienne Rich explores the roles of women in shaping their world:
The faithful drudging child
the child at the oak desk whose penmanship,
hard work, style will win her prizes
becomes the woman with a mission, not to win prizes
but to change the laws of history. (23)
Adding or Omitting Words In Quotations
If you add a word or words in a quotation, you should put brackets around the words to indicate that they are not part of the original text.
For example:
Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: "some individuals [who retell urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).
If you omit a word or words from a quotation, you should indicate the deleted word or word by using ellipsis marks surrounded by brackets.
For example:
In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point of learning every recent rumor or tale [...] and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).
If there are ellipsis marks in the quoted author's work, do not put brackets around them; only use brackets around ellipsis marks to distinguish them from ellipsis marks in the quoted author's work.
Your Works Cited List
The works cited list should appear at the end of your essay. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and be able to read any sources you cite in the essay. Each source you cite in the essay must appear in your works-cited list; likewise, each entry in the works-cited list must be cited in your text. Preparing your works cited list using MLA style is covered in chapter six of the MLA Style Manual, and chapter four of the Handbook for Writing Research Papers. Here are some guidelines for preparing your works cited list.
List Format
• Begin your works cited list on a separate page from the text of the essay under the label Works Cited (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), which should be centered at the top of the page.
• Make the first line of each entry in your list flush left with the margin. Subsequent lines in each entry should be indented one-half inch. This is known as a hanging indent.
• Double space all entries, with no skipped spaces between entries.
• Keep in mind that underlining and italics are equivalent; you should select one or the other to use throughout your essay.
• Alphabetize the list of works cited by the first word in each entry (usually the author's last name),
Basic Rules for Citations
• Authors' names are inverted (last name first); if a work has more than one author, invert only the first author's name, follow it with a comma, then continue listing the rest of the authors.
• If you have cited more than one work by a particular author, order them alphabetically by title, and use three hyphens in place of the author's name for every entry after the first.
• When an author appears both as the sole author of a text and as the first author of a group, list solo-author entries first.
• If no author is given for a particular work, alphabetize by the title of the piece and use a shortened version of the title for parenthetical citations.
• Capitalize each word in the titles of articles, books, etc. This rule does not apply to articles, short prepositions, or conjunctions unless one is the first word of the title or subtitle.
• Underline or italicize titles of books, journals, magazines, newspapers, and films.
• Use quotation marks around the titles of articles in journals, magazines, and newspapers. Also use quotation marks for the titles of short stories, book chapters, poems, and songs.
• List page numbers efficiently, when needed. If you refer to a journal article that appeared on pages 225 through 250, list the page numbers on your Works Cited page as 225-50.
If you're citing an article or a publication that was originally issued in print form but that you retrieved from an online database, you should provide enough information so that the reader can locate the article either in its original print form or retrieve it from the online database (if they have access).
Basic Forms for Sources in Print
The MLA Style Manual provides extensive examples of print source citations in chapter six; The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers provides extensive examples covering a wide variety of potential sources in chapter six. If your particular case is not covered here, use the basic forms to determine the correct format, consult the MLA Handbook, visit the links in our additional resources section, talk to your instructor, or call the Writing Lab (765-494-3723) for help.
Books
Author(s). Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Book with one author
Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House. Denver: MacMurray, 1999.
Two books by the same author
(After the first listing of the author's name, use three hyphens and a period for the author's name. List books alphabetically.)
Palmer, William J. Dickens and New Historicism. New York: St. Martin's, 1997.
---. The Films of the Eighties: A Social History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1993.
Book with more than one author
Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Boston: Allyn, 2000.
If there are more than three authors, you may list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. (the abbreviation for the Latin phrase "and others") in place of the other authors' names, or you may list all the authors in the order in which their names appear on the title page.
Book with a corporate author
American Allergy Association. Allergies in Children. New York: Random, 1998.
Book or article with no author named
Encyclopedia of Indiana. New York: Somerset, 1993.
"Cigarette Sales Fall 30% as California Tax Rises." New York Times 14 Sept. 1999: A17.
For parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and underlining as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Encyclopedia 235) and ("Cigarette" A17).
Anthology or collection
Peterson, Nancy J., ed. Toni Morrison: Critical and Theoretical Approaches. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.
A part of a book (such as an essay in a collection)
Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Collection. Ed. Editor's Name(s). Place of Publication: Publisher, Year. Pages.
Essay in a collection
Harris, Muriel. "Talk to Me: Engaging Reluctant Writers." A Tutor's Guide: Helping Writers One to One. Ed. Ben Rafoth. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000. 24-34.
Cross-referencing: If you cite more than one essay from the same edited collection, you should cross-reference within your works cited list in order to avoid writing out the publishing information for each separate essay. To do so, include a separate entry for the entire collection listed by the editor's name. For individual essays from that collection, simply list the author's name, the title of the essay, the editor's last name, and the page numbers. For example:
L'Eplattenier, Barbara. "Finding Ourselves in the Past: An Argument for Historical Work on WPAs." Rose and Weiser 131-40.
Peeples, Tim. "'Seeing' the WPA With/Through Postmodern Mapping." Rose and Weiser 153-167.
Rose, Shirley K, and Irwin Weiser, eds. The Writing Program Administrator as Researcher. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999.
Article from a reference book
"Jamaica." Encyclopedia Britannica. 1999 ed.
An article in a periodical (such as a newspaper or magazine)
Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Source Day Month Year: pages.
When citing the date, list day before month; use a three-letter abbreviation of the month (e.g. Jan., Mar., Aug.). If there is more than one edition available for that date (as in an early and late edition of a newspaper), identify the edition following the date (e.g. 17 May 1987, late ed.).
Magazine or newspaper article
Poniewozik, James. "TV Makes a Too-Close Call." Time 20 Nov. 2000: 70-71.
Trembacki, Paul. "Brees Hopes to Win Heisman for Team." Purdue Exponent 5 Dec. 2000: 20.
An article in a scholarly journal
Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Vol (Year): pages.
"Vol" indicates the volume number of the journal. If the journal uses continuous pagination throughout a particular volume, only volume and year are needed, e.g. Modern Fiction Studies 40 (1998): 251-81. If each issue of the journal begins on page 1, however, you must also provide the issue number following the volume, e.g. Mosaic 19.3 (1986): 33-49.
Essay in a journal with continuous pagination
Allen, Emily. "Staging Identity: Frances Burney's Allegory of Genre." Eighteenth-Century Studies 31 (1998): 433-51.
Essay in a journal that pages each issue separately
Duvall, John N. "The (Super)Marketplace of Images: Television as Unmediated Mediation in DeLillo's White Noise." Arizona Quarterly 50.3 (1994): 127-53.
The Bible (specific editions)
The New Jerusalem Bible. Susan Jones, gen. ed. New York: Doubleday, 1985.
Basic Forms for Electronic Sources
If no author is given for a web page or electronic source, start with and alphabetize by the title of the piece and use a shortened version of the title for parenthetical citations.
A web site
Author(s). Name of Page. Date of Posting/Revision. Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site. Date of Access .
It is necessary to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available at one date may no longer be available later. Be sure to include the complete address for the site. Also, note the use of angled brackets around the electronic address; MLA requires them for clarity.
Web site examples
Felluga, Dino. Undergraduate Guide to Literary Theory. 17 Dec. 1999. Purdue University. 15 Nov. 2000 <http://omni.cc.purdue.edu%7Efelluga/theory2.html>. Purdue Online Writing Lab. 2003. Purdue University. 10 Feb. 2003 <http://owl.english.purdue.edu>.
An article on a web site
It is necessary to list your date of access because web postings are often updated, and information available at one date may no longer be available later. Be sure to include the complete address for the site. Also, note the use of angled brackets around the electronic address; MLA requires them for clarity.
Author(s)."Article Title." Name of web site. Date of posting/revision. Name of institution/organization affiliated with site. Date of access .
Article on a web site
Poland, Dave. "The Hot Button." Roughcut. 26 Oct. 1998. Turner Network Television. 28 Oct. 1998 <http://www.roughcut.com>.
"Using Modern Language Association (MLA) Format." Purdue Online Writing Lab. 2003. Purdue University. 6 Feb. 2003 <http://owl.english.purdue.eduhandouts/research/r_mla.html>.
An article in an online journal or magazine
Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Volume. Issue (Year): Pages/Paragraphs. Date of Access .
Some electronic journals and magazines provide paragraph or page numbers; include them if available. This format is also appropriate to online magazines; as with a print version, you should provide a complete publication date rather than volume and issue number.
Online journal article
Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention." Emerging Infectious Diseases 6.6 (2000): 33 pars. 5 Dec. 2000 <http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no6/wheelis.htm>.
An Online Image or Series of Images
Artist if available. "Description or title of image." Date of image. Online image. Title of larger site. Date of download. .
Smith, Greg. "Rhesus Monkeys in the Zoo." No date. Online image. Monkey Picture Gallery. 3 May 2003. <http://monkeys.online.org/rhesus.jpg>.
E-mail (or other personal communications)
Author. "Title of the message (if any)" E-mail to person's name. Date of the message.
This same format may be used for personal interviews or personal letters. These do not have titles, and the description should be appropriate. Instead of "Email to John Smith," you would have "Personal interview."
E-mail to you
Kunka, Andrew. "Re: Modernist Literature." E-mail to the author. 15 Nov. 2000.
Email communication between two parties, not including the author
Neyhart, David. "Re: Online Tutoring." E-mail to Joe Barbato. 1 Dec. 2000.
A listserv posting
Author. "Title of Posting." Online posting. Date when material was posted (for example: 18 Mar. 1998). Name of listserv. Date of access .
Online Posting
Karper, Erin. "Welcome!" Online posting. 23 Oct. 2000. Professional Writing Bulletin Board. 12 Nov. 2000 <http://linnell.english.purdue.edu/ubb/Forum2/HTML/000001.html>.
An article or publication retrieved from an electronic database
If you're citing an article or a publication that was originally issued in print form but that you retrieved from an online database that your library subscribes to, you should provide enough information so that the reader can locate the article either in its original print form or retrieve it from the online database (if they have access).
Provide the following information in your citation:
• Author's name (if not available, use the article title as the first part of the citation)
• Article Title
• Publication Name
• Publication Date
• Page Number/Range
• Database Name
• Service Name
• Name of the library where service was accessed
• Name of the town/city where service was accessed
• Date of Access
• URL of the service (but not the whole URL for the article, since those are very long and won't be able to be re-used by someone trying to retrieve the information)
The generic citation form would look like this:
Author. "Title of Article." Publication Name Volume Number (if necessary) Publication Date: page number-page number. Database name. Service name. Library Name, City, State. Date of access .
Here's an example:
Smith, Martin. "World Domination for Dummies." Journal of Despotry Feb. 2000: 66-72. Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale Group Databases. Purdue University Libraries, West Lafayette, IN. 19 February 2003 <http://www.infotrac.galegroup.com>.
Article in a reference database on CD-ROM
"World War II." Encarta. CD-ROM. Seattle: Microsoft, 1999.
Article from a periodically published database on CD-ROM
Reed, William. "Whites and the Entertainment Industry." Tennessee Tribune 25 Dec. 1996: 28. Ethnic NewsWatch. CD-ROM. Data Technologies. Feb. 1997.
Other Types of Sources
Government publication
United States Dept. of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health. Washington: GPO, 2000.
Pamphlet
Office of the Dean of Students. Resources for Success: Learning Disabilities and Attention Deficit Disorders. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University, 2000.
Interview that you conducted
Purdue, Pete. Personal Interview. 1 Dec. 2000.
A lecture or a speech
To cite a lecture or a speech, "give the speaker's name, the title of the lecture or speech (if known) in quotation marks, the meeting and the sponsoring organization (if applicable), the location [including place and city, if available], and the date. If there is no title, use an appropriate descriptive label (e.g., Lecture, Address, Keynote speech), neither underlined nor enclosed in quotation marks" (MLA Handbook, 206).
Harris, Muriel. "Writing Labs: A Short History." 2003 Writing Center Conference. National Writing Centers Association. La Swank Hotel, Seattle. 28 March 2003.
Advertisement
Lufthansa. Advertisement. Time 20 Nov. 2000: 151.
Television or radio program
"The Blessing Way." The X-Files. Fox. WXIA, Atlanta. 19 Jul. 1998.
Sound recording
U2. All That You Can't Leave Behind. Interscope, 2000.
Film
The Usual Suspects. Dir. Bryan Singer. Perf. Kevin Spacey, Gabriel Byrne, Chazz Palminteri, Stephen Baldwin, and Benecio del Toro. Polygram, 1995.
TV Advertisement
Staples. Advertisement. CBS. 3 Dec. 2000.
A Note on Footnotes and Endnotes
Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA) recommend limited use of footnotes/endnotes. An exception is Chicago-style documentation, which relies on notes for all citations as well as explanatory notes. But even in that case, extensive discursive notes are discouraged. Proper use of notes would include:
1. evaluative bibliographic comments, for example:
1 See Blackmur, especially chapters three and four, for an insightful analysis of this trend.
2 On the problems related to repressed memory recovery, see Wollens pp. 120- 35; for a contrasting view, see Pyle.
2. occasional explanatory notes or other brief additional information that would seem digressive if included in the main text but might be interesting to readers, for example:
3 In a 1998 interview, she reiterated this point even more strongly: "I am an artist, not a politician!" (Weller 124).
Footnotes in MLA format are indicated by consecutive superscript arabic numbers in the text. The notes themselves are listed by consecutive superscript Arabic numbers and appear double-spaced in regular paragraph format (a new paragraph for each note) on a separate page under the word Notes (centered, in plain text without quotation marks).
A Research Guide for Students
Chapter 1. How to Write an A+ Research Paper
This Chapter outlines the logical steps to writing a good research paper. To achieve supreme excellence or perfection in anything you do, you need more than just the knowledge. Like the Olympic athlete aiming for the gold medal, you must have a positive attitude and the belief that you have the ability to achieve it. That is the real start to writing an A+ research paper.
CONTENTS:
STEP 1. CHOOSE A TOPIC
STEP 2. FIND INFORMATION
STEP 3. STATE YOUR THESIS
STEP 4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINE
STEP 5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES
STEP 6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT
STEP 7. REVISE YOUR OUTLINE AND DRAFT
Checklist One Checklist Two
STEP 8. TYPE FINAL PAPER
STEP 1. CHOOSE A TOPIC
Choose a topic which interests and challenges you. Your attitude towards the topic may well determine the amount of effort and enthusiasm you put into your research.
Focus on a limited aspect, e.g. narrow it down from "Religion" to "World Religion" to "Buddhism". Obtain teacher approval for your topic before embarking on a full-scale research. If you are uncertain as to what is expected of you in completing the assignment or project, re-read your assignment sheet carefully or ASK your teacher.
Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned, or specialized. Avoid topics that have only a very narrow range of source materials.
STEP 2. FIND INFORMATION
Surf the Net.
For general or background information, check out useful URLs, general information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online such as Britannica, or Encarta, etc. Use Search Engines and other search tools as a starting point.
Pay attention to domain name extensions, e.g., .edu (educational institution), .gov (government), or .org (non-profit organization). These sites represent institutions and tend to be more reliable, but be watchful of possible political bias in some government sites. Be selective of .com (commercial) sites. Many .com sites are excellent; however, a large number of them contain advertisements for products and nothing else. Be wary of the millions of personal home pages on the Net. The quality of these personal homepages vary greatly. Learning how to evaluate Web sites critically and to search effectively on the Internet can help you eliminate irrelevant sites and waste less of your time.
The recent arrival of a variety of domain name extensions such as .biz (commercial businesses), .pro, .info (info on products / organizations), .name (personal names set to launch in May 2002), .ws (WebSite), .cc (from Cocos Island) or .sh (from St. Helena) or .tv (from Tuvalu) may create some confusion as you would not be able to tell whether a .cc or .sh or .tv site is in reality a .com, a .edu, a .gov, a .net, or a .org site. Many of the new extensions have no registration restrictions and are available to anyone who wishes to register a distinct domain name that has not already been taken. For instance, if Books.com is unavailable, you can register as Books.ws or Books.info via a service agent such as Register.com.
Depending on the information you are searching, the Internet is not always the easiest nor the first place you should try especially if you don't have ready access to a computer. Some students unnecessarily line up for a computer to find the meaning of a word when they should be using their common sense, i.e. a simple dictionary. Often the traditional printed resource, such as an encyclopedia, a dictionary, an almanac, or a directory, can provide you with the needed information much faster. This situation may change, however, as libraries provide more free Internet access, subscribe more to online resources and buy fewer printed materials.
To find books in the Library use the OPAC (Online Public Access Catalog).
Check out other print materials available in the Library:
Almanacs, Atlases, AV Catalogs
Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
Government Publications, Guides, Reports
Magazines, Newspapers
Vertical Files
Yellow Pages, Zip or Postal Code and Telephone Directories
Check out online resources, Web based information services, or resource materials on CD-ROMs:
Online reference materials (e.g. Electric Library, EBSCO, etc.)
Index to Periodicals and Newspapers (e.g. MagPortal.com, OnlineNewspapers.com, MAS, Resource One, etc.)
Encyclopedias (e.g. Encarta, Britannica, Canadian Encyclopedia, etc.)
Magazines and Journals in full text and/or full image (e.g. Time, Maclean's, Newsweek, etc.)
Newspapers (e.g. Los Angeles Times, Toronto Star, etc.)
Social Issues (e.g. SIRS, IssueQuest, etc.)
Subject Specific CD-ROMs (e.g. Discovering Authors, Exploring Shakespeare, etc.)
Check out Public and University Libraries, businesses, government agencies, as well as contact knowledgeable people in your community.
Read and evaluate. Bookmark your favorite Internet sites. Printout, photocopy, and take notes of relevant information.
As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information (author, title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, page numbers, URLs, creation or modification dates on Web pages, and your date of access) on your work sheet, printout, or enter the information on your laptop for later retrieval. If printing from the Internet, it is wise to use a browser that provides you with the URL and date of access on every printed page. Remember that an article without bibliographical information is useless since you cannot cite its source.
STEP 3. STATE YOUR THESIS
Do some critical thinking and write your thesis statement down in one sentence. Your thesis statement is like a declaration of your belief. The main portion of your essay will consist of arguments to support and defend this belief.
STEP 4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINE
All points must relate to the same major topic that you first mentioned in your capital Roman numeral.
Example of an outline:
I. Shakespeare's life
A. Early life in Stratford
1. Shakespeare's family
a. Shakespeare's father
b. Shakespeare's mother
2. Shakespeare's marriage
B. The Elizabethan Theater
1. The Globe Theater
a. History of the Globe
b. Owners of the Globe
c. Structure of the Globe
2. Acting companies
a. Men and boys
b. Sponsorships
II. Shakespeare's plays
A. Hamlet
B. Romeo and Juliet
The purpose of an outline is to help you think through your topic carefully and organize it logically before you start writing. A good outline is the most important step in writing a good paper. Check your outline to make sure that the points covered flow logically from one to the other. Include in your outline an INTRODUCTION, a BODY, and a CONCLUSION. Make the first outline tentative.
INTRODUCTION - State your thesis and the purpose of your research paper clearly. What is the chief reason you are writing the paper? State also how you plan to approach your topic. Is this a factual report, a book review, a comparison, or an analysis of a problem? Explain briefly the major points you plan to cover in your paper and why readers should be interested in your topic.
BODY - This is where you present your arguments to support your thesis statement. Remember the Rule of 3, i.e. find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. Begin with a strong argument, then use a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument for your final point.
CONCLUSION - Restate your thesis. Summarize your arguments. Explain why you have come to this particular conclusion.
STEP 5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES
Organize all the information you have gathered according to your outline. Critically analyze your research data. Using the best available sources, check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up-to-date, and correct. Opposing views should also be noted if they help to support your thesis. This is the most important stage in writing a research paper. Here you will analyze, synthesize, sort, and digest the information you have gathered and hopefully learn something about your topic which is the real purpose of doing a research paper in the first place. You must also be able to effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights, and research findings to others through written words as in a report, an essay, a research or term paper, or through spoken words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids.
Do not include any information that is not relevant to your topic, and do not include information that you do not understand. Make sure the information that you have noted is carefully recorded and in your own words, if possible. Plagiarism is definitely out of the question. Document all ideas borrowed or quotes used very accurately. As you organize your notes, jot down detailed bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your Works Cited page.
Devise your own method to organize your notes. One method may be to mark with a different color ink or use a hi-liter to identify sections in your outline, e.g., IA3b - meaning that the item "Accessing WWW" belongs in the following location of your outline:
I. Understanding the Internet
A. What is the Internet
3. How to "Surf the Net"
b. Accessing WWW
Group your notes following the outline codes you have assigned to your notes, e.g., IA2, IA3, IA4, etc. This method will enable you to quickly put all your resources in the right place as you organize your notes according to your outline.
STEP 6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT
Start with the first topic in your outline. Read all the relevant notes you have gathered that have been marked, e.g. with the capital Roman numeral I.
Summarize, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea you plan to use in your essay. Use a technique that suits you, e.g. write summaries, paraphrases or quotations on note cards, or separate sheets of lined paper. Mark each card or sheet of paper clearly with your outline code or reference, e.g., IB2a or IIC, etc.
Put all your note cards or paper in the order of your outline, e.g. IA, IB, IC. If using a word processor, create meaningful filenames that match your outline codes for easy cut and paste as you type up your final paper, e.g. cut first Introduction paragraph and paste it to IA. Before you know it, you have a well organized term paper completed exactly as outlined.
If it is helpful to you, use a symbol such as "#" to mark the spot where you would like to check back later to edit a paragraph. The unusual symbol will make it easy for you to find the exact location again. Delete the symbol once editing is completed.
STEP 7. REVISE YOUR OUTLINE AND DRAFT
Read your paper for any errors in content. Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow your outline. Reorganize your outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of your paper and your readers in mind.
CHECKLIST ONE:
1. Is my thesis statement concise and clear?
2. Did I follow my outline? Did I miss anything?
3. Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?
4. Are all sources cited to ensure that I am not plagiarizing?
5. Have I proved my thesis with strong supporting arguments?
6. Have I made my intentions and points clear in the essay?
Re-read your paper for grammatical errors. Use a dictionary or a thesaurus as needed. Do a spell check if using a word processor. Correct all errors that you can spot and improve the overall quality of the paper to the best of your ability. Get someone else to read it over. Sometimes a second pair of eyes can see mistakes that you cannot.
CHECKLIST TWO:
1. Did I begin each paragraph with a proper topic sentence?
2. Have I supported my arguments with documented proof or examples?
3. Any run-on or unfinished sentences?
4. Any unnecessary or repetitious words?
5. Varying lengths of sentences?
6. Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next?
7. Any spelling or grammatical errors?
8. Quotes accurate in source, spelling, and punctuation?
9. Are all my citations accurate and in correct format?
10. Did I avoid using contractions? Use "cannot" instead of "can't", "do not" instead of "don't"?
11. Did I use third person as much as possible? Avoid using phrases such as "I think", "I guess", "I suppose"
12. Have I made my points clear and interesting but remained objective?
13. Did I leave a sense of completion for my reader(s) at the end of the paper?
STEP 8. TYPE FINAL PAPER
All formal reports, essays ,or research should be typewritten.
Make sure that you understand fully what is expected of you, and that your essay meets the requirements as specified by your teacher. Know how your essay will be evaluated.
Proofread final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated words. Make the effort to ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat, and attractive.
Aim to have your final paper ready a day or two before the deadline. This gives you peace of mind and a chance to triple check. Before handing in your assignment for marking, ask yourself: "Is this the VERY BEST that I can do?"
Sample #1
APA Style Research Paper and "Works Cited"
The Philosophy and Influence of Max Weber
Abstract
The influential thoughts of Max Weber have inspired many sociologists to produce translations of his work. Weber lived in Germany most of his life, having significant interest in the political aspects and bureaucratic functions of society. Weber gave written accounts of law and societal response. His concepts of bureaucracy have inspired many sociologists to study the philosophy and foundations of government. A controversial and complex person, Weber was able to author numerous books. Much of Weber’s work has indeed been translated, but these translations are questionable. Weber’s wife claimed that her husband was a very complex person who wrote and documented material without format. This paper investigates the translations of Weber’s writings, and attempts to interpret Weber’s true intentions.
Research
Although Max Weber died only forty years ago, international interest in Weberian philosophies have grown over the last twenty years and this only begins to disclose the basics of his work due to Weber’s complex form of writing and the lack of complete interpretations of his works. Weber conceptualizes how society regulates through orders of conformity. Steven Vago asserts that the sociologist and lawyer played a crucial role in sociological theory through the typification of legal systems.(Vago, 2000) It is through these theoretical analysis that Weber contributes to sociology, Public Administration, and Economics. Furthermore, Weber identifies and structures his beliefs of bureaucracy, listing several elements that would be necessary for administration. Weber explains how legal authority has transcended and prevailed in different societies. Weber identifies several "ideal types" in his explanation of the evolution law through the times. The complexity of Weberian thoughts have left many disparities in his interpretations and translations of his work. Richard Stillman II stated that Weber’s detailed analysis of bureaucracy has sparked heated debate and criticism.(Stillman, 2000). Although Weber’s thoughts are equivocal, his beliefs have transcended to modern day society.
Max Weber was a German social scientist who is recognized as a pioneer for his intellectual contributions to bureaucracy. Weber developed characteristics of bureaucracy that were embraced as classical. Weber was a recognized scholar in economics and social thought. As Reinhard Bendix notes, Weber was "like a man of Renaissance who took all of humanity for his province." (Bendix, 1962) Weber was an analytical and objective sociologist. Weber was born in 1864 and died in 1920, spending most of his life in Germany. Weber was an upper middle class citizen who was intrigued by politics at a very young age. After a short tenure in the military, Weber entered the school of law ultimately becoming a proponent in the pedagogy of economics at the university of Freiburg. Professor Weber became ill prompting his immediate resignation from the university. Weber continued his work at home on an individual basis. Several years later, Weber was able to attain a regular appointment to the chair of economics in Munich. Weber’s life was cut short the second semester, after he contracted pneumonia.(Bendix, 1962) Although Weber is no longer with us, his idealist thoughts of economy, bureaucracy, and administration remain prevalent.
Weber conceptualizes how people interact within the law and act in accordance. Weber also wrote about how people conformed to society’s rules in the past and how people conformed to the law and its regulations. Weber states the importance of legal stability for a capital enterprise is that not only does the law have to be internalized by the people in order to be effective, but it also has to be backed by a threat of force. Weber’s conceptualization in a modern concept is generally correct and is evident within our own current system. In our current system of justice, the United States Supreme Court is said to be the law of the land. The kind of authority the supreme court has and the ability for it to stand on its own can best be seen in an old case that was ruled upon by the high court, Marbury v. Madison (1803). William Marbury was appointed to a newly created judgeship position in the District of Columbia by outgoing President John Adams and new President Thomas Jefferson refused to give Marbury his position, repealing the Judiciary Act of 1801. To sum up the case, the Supreme Court ruled against Marbury citing a jurisdictional issue. The question of whether the President would allow Marbury to take his position or not would still remain if the Supreme Court would have granted Marbury a writ of mandamus ordering Secretary of State James Madison to deliver his commission.
The Supreme Court is created under Article III of the Constitution. The power to execute is under the President of the United States as declared in Article II of the U.S. Constitution. The high court hands down its decisions expecting the Executive branch of government to enforce it. Through this generalization, Weber has made a significant analysis, suggesting, "An order will be called a law if it is externally guaranteed by the probability that coercion (physical or psychological) to bring conformity or avenge violation, will be applied by a staff of people holding themselves ready for that purpose." (Vago, p. 8) Another example would be Plessey v. Ferguson in the desegregation of schools in which the highest court handed down the decision necessitating the assistance of the Executive branch of government to bring compliance. The government had to use the commerce clause in some cases to desegregate privately owned businesses. This is a prime example how an order will be called law if guaranteed with the probability of coercion.
Weber’s typologies of legal systems are considered to be rational or irrational. According to Vago, rational procedures involve the use of the scientific method to attain specific objectives. The irrational module relies on the use of ethical, magical and supernatural phenomenon. These typologies were considered in conjunction with formal and substantive law. Weber believed that the use of formal law referred to the use of rules and regulations to make determinations. These determinations would be made regardless if the proceeding would be fair to the party. An example would be the use of codified law in determining guilt or innocence. The individual is judged according to a specific set of rules under the law and regardless of whether the proceeding is unbiased or not. Formal law can be applied when it is bound by the strict rules that one needs to adhere to, subsequently governing the people. For example, a judge in a lawsuit is only bound by what lawyers relay in the courtroom. If some important information is not given, or if a person fails to remember crucial information, or cannot afford the expense acquired in order to have specific documentation, and then the person is forced to go without the rights given to them.
The second, substantive law, takes everything into consideration: the circumstances, law, and chain of events with a conceit of justice. Substantive law would exemplify the current system of justice in the United States. Every aspect of an incident is taken into consideration. (Heydebrand, 1994) An example would be the use of justifiable deadly force by a law enforcement officer. Under substantive law, everything is taken into consideration before the officer is judged or adjudicated. Formal law consists of looking at the individual act regardless of the circumstances surrounding the case. There would be no justifiable case or defense under formal law. According to Weber, there is no society that would occupy any specific typology. These typologies could be taken into regard in combination. Substantive irrational exists when a particular case is taken into consideration solely on the basis of emotional, ethical, or political basis. This may occur when a religious judge in an agrarian society makes a decision without specific rules of guidance. In contrast, formal irrational would encompass supernatural forces. It is "formal because strict adherence is required for procedures." (Vago, p. 47) A prime example would be trial by ordeal. In the past, if a person was suspected of witchcraft, the individual would be placed in the lake or large body of water tied to heavy objects, drowning the person. If the person was innocent, the people believed that the individual would emerge from the bottom. In the same respect, Weber considered substantive rational and formal rational.
Vago translates the first, substantive rational, and is illustrated on rules from other than legal sources, such as religion, or science. An example of this topology would be the efforts of "Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran to make decisions on the basis of the Koran." (Vago, p. 48) Another example would be Muslim use of Allah to make decisions. The latter, formal rational, is best epitomized by the American Justice system. This system of justice applies equally to all cases. The system has an independent set of rules that give every individual and equal and independent chance of justice. Weber constantly acknowledged the unsolvable conflict between formal and substantive rationality of the law (Bendix, 1962). He stated that formal rationality had more importance in Western Civilization yet there was always conflict between the two. Pure ethical considerations would demand that justice be administered and not be affected by unequal distribution of income. This is not what the rationality of the law states, which consists of the predictability of formal procedures. Weber’s view was that legal domination had to be a balance between the two principles.
Along the same sense, Weber identifies three systems of justice: 1) Kahdi justice, 2) empirical justice, and 3) rational justice. (Vago, 2000) The first is completely arbitrary, relying on religious precedent lacking procedural rules. This is the process that is used in Iran and Pakistan, where the bible contains the word of God in the Islamic religion. The second, empirical justice is based on past cases and similar circumstances. Vago contends that empirical justice is more rational than is Kahdi justice. The latter, "rational justice is based on bureaucratic principles." (Vago, 2000) Furthermore, rationalistic views are based on facts and interpretation. Although each system of justice is different, Weber was able to discern how justice was enforced in different parts of the world. Vago asserts that the Weberian ideology of rationalist approach is best defined in modern societies. (Vago, 2000)
"The classic treatment of legitimate authority is that of Max Weber." (Vago, p. 329) People have obeyed authority for different reasons throughout the times. Weber rationalizes three different types of authority and their legitimacy. (Parsons, 1947) Weber begins with the traditional authority that is asserted through tradition and legitimacy of those seeking authority. The "rule of elders" is an illustrative of traditional authority. (Vago, p. 329) This type of authority would be sound in traditional type societies, where people seek advice from the older and more experienced people in their clan. Traditional leaders are owed the obedience and are usually bound by tradition. (Parsons, 1947) This type of authority could be found in agrarian- type societies. People who are heroes or exemplary characters in their society seek the second, charismatic authority. This leader is trusted by society. Illustrations of charismatic leaders include Allah, Osama Bin Laden, Christ, Martin Luther King, and Jesse Jackson. Weber’s last ideology of authority is the legal rational. Legal rational authority is possessed by those in positions of authority, which include but is not limited to department executives, supervisors, Lieutenants, Captains, and Sergeants. In this particular case, the position of authority is legally bound.
Stillman analyzes Weber’s concept and structure of bureaucracy that is imputed through three essential elements: division of labor, hierarchical order, and impersonal rules. The first, division of labor, is identified as the division of tasks commensurate to level of competency. In this concept, Weber explains that there are certain jobs for certain people. Some individuals have the capability of being leaders or managers while others are bound laborious positions. The second, hierarchical order establishes the chain of command. It separates the employees from the supervisors through assigned work and differential pay. The last element, impersonal rules are the rules and regulations that the employee, supervisor, manager, and executive must adhere to. The rules are systematic in the sense that they apply equally to everyone. This would abolish are arbitrary tactics of favoritism. (Stillman, 2000) This concept of bureaucracy describes the workers opportunity to advance to a managerial position. These elements of bureaucracy are proportional to the civil service requirements within the city of Laredo. The Police Department has a division of labor, hierarchical order, and set of impersonal rules. These elements give every Officer and equal and independent chance of promoting. Through these concepts one is able to understand the functions of bureaucracy and concept of public administration. (Stillman, 2000)
Weber’s work was compiled in thirteen different books and has not been completely translated to this day. All his works remain subject to interpretation. Weber’s wife even stated at one time that her husband was a man who was very difficult to understand. Even interpretations of his work are questionable since Weber never bothered to section his thoughts and writings by subject but rather wrote down all of his sentiments as they came to mind.
Works Cited
Bendix, Reinhard. (1962). Max Weber an intellectual portrait. New York: Double day
and Company. (417,42, 150)
Henderson, A. M., Talcott Parsons. (Eds.) (1947). Max Weber, The Theory of Social
and Economic Organization. New York: Free Press.(328 , 329)
Heydebrand, Wolf. (Eds.). (1994) Max Weber Sociological Writings. Continuum
publishing: New York. (204, 205)
Stillman, Richard J. II. (2000). Public Administration concept and cases. (7th ed.)
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. (51. 55, 150)
Vago, Steven. (2000). Law and Society. (6th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
(8, 47, 48, 329, 330(
Sample #1
APA Style Research Paper and "Works Cited"
The Philosophy and Influence of Max Weber
Abstract
The influential thoughts of Max Weber have inspired many sociologists to produce translations of his work. Weber lived in Germany most of his life, having significant interest in the political aspects and bureaucratic functions of society. Weber gave written accounts of law and societal response. His concepts of bureaucracy have inspired many sociologists to study the philosophy and foundations of government. A controversial and complex person, Weber was able to author numerous books. Much of Weber’s work has indeed been translated, but these translations are questionable. Weber’s wife claimed that her husband was a very complex person who wrote and documented material without format. This paper investigates the translations of Weber’s writings, and attempts to interpret Weber’s true intentions.
Research
Although Max Weber died only forty years ago, international interest in Weberian philosophies have grown over the last twenty years and this only begins to disclose the basics of his work due to Weber’s complex form of writing and the lack of complete interpretations of his works. Weber conceptualizes how society regulates through orders of conformity. Steven Vago asserts that the sociologist and lawyer played a crucial role in sociological theory through the typification of legal systems.(Vago, 2000) It is through these theoretical analysis that Weber contributes to sociology, Public Administration, and Economics. Furthermore, Weber identifies and structures his beliefs of bureaucracy, listing several elements that would be necessary for administration. Weber explains how legal authority has transcended and prevailed in different societies. Weber identifies several "ideal types" in his explanation of the evolution law through the times. The complexity of Weberian thoughts have left many disparities in his interpretations and translations of his work. Richard Stillman II stated that Weber’s detailed analysis of bureaucracy has sparked heated debate and criticism.(Stillman, 2000). Although Weber’s thoughts are equivocal, his beliefs have transcended to modern day society.
Max Weber was a German social scientist who is recognized as a pioneer for his intellectual contributions to bureaucracy. Weber developed characteristics of bureaucracy that were embraced as classical. Weber was a recognized scholar in economics and social thought. As Reinhard Bendix notes, Weber was "like a man of Renaissance who took all of humanity for his province." (Bendix, 1962) Weber was an analytical and objective sociologist. Weber was born in 1864 and died in 1920, spending most of his life in Germany. Weber was an upper middle class citizen who was intrigued by politics at a very young age. After a short tenure in the military, Weber entered the school of law ultimately becoming a proponent in the pedagogy of economics at the university of Freiburg. Professor Weber became ill prompting his immediate resignation from the university. Weber continued his work at home on an individual basis. Several years later, Weber was able to attain a regular appointment to the chair of economics in Munich. Weber’s life was cut short the second semester, after he contracted pneumonia.(Bendix, 1962) Although Weber is no longer with us, his idealist thoughts of economy, bureaucracy, and administration remain prevalent.
Weber conceptualizes how people interact within the law and act in accordance. Weber also wrote about how people conformed to society’s rules in the past and how people conformed to the law and its regulations. Weber states the importance of legal stability for a capital enterprise is that not only does the law have to be internalized by the people in order to be effective, but it also has to be backed by a threat of force. Weber’s conceptualization in a modern concept is generally correct and is evident within our own current system. In our current system of justice, the United States Supreme Court is said to be the law of the land. The kind of authority the supreme court has and the ability for it to stand on its own can best be seen in an old case that was ruled upon by the high court, Marbury v. Madison (1803). William Marbury was appointed to a newly created judgeship position in the District of Columbia by outgoing President John Adams and new President Thomas Jefferson refused to give Marbury his position, repealing the Judiciary Act of 1801. To sum up the case, the Supreme Court ruled against Marbury citing a jurisdictional issue. The question of whether the President would allow Marbury to take his position or not would still remain if the Supreme Court would have granted Marbury a writ of mandamus ordering Secretary of State James Madison to deliver his commission.
The Supreme Court is created under Article III of the Constitution. The power to execute is under the President of the United States as declared in Article II of the U.S. Constitution. The high court hands down its decisions expecting the Executive branch of government to enforce it. Through this generalization, Weber has made a significant analysis, suggesting, "An order will be called a law if it is externally guaranteed by the probability that coercion (physical or psychological) to bring conformity or avenge violation, will be applied by a staff of people holding themselves ready for that purpose." (Vago, p. 8) Another example would be Plessey v. Ferguson in the desegregation of schools in which the highest court handed down the decision necessitating the assistance of the Executive branch of government to bring compliance. The government had to use the commerce clause in some cases to desegregate privately owned businesses. This is a prime example how an order will be called law if guaranteed with the probability of coercion.
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